What are the criteria for establishing causality?

Establishing causality involves a specific relationship between cause and effect. The correct answer highlights two essential criteria for establishing this relationship: the cause must precede the effect, and there must be a covariance between the two. This means that whenever the cause occurs, the effect can consistently be observed as well, demonstrating a link between them.

Firstly, the idea that the cause precedes the effect is critical because, for something to be considered a cause, it logically must occur before the effect can manifest. Secondly, covariance indicates that changes in the cause result in changes in the effect. If there is no measurable change in the effect with the variation of the cause, then we cannot assert a causal relationship.

The other options reflect misunderstandings or misinterpretations of causality. For instance, claiming that the effect must follow the cause "with no exceptions" is unrealistic, as there can always be delays or other factors affecting the observation. Proposing that all outcomes need to be known beforehand ignores the dynamic nature of most real-world scenarios where consequences can emerge later or aren’t fully understood at the outset. Finally, stating that both cause and effect must be observed simultaneously contradicts the foundational principle of causality that emphasizes the sequential order of events.

Thus,